Landsgaard UNION Columns

The “Tribes of the Turkey River” column has appeared in the UNION/ECHO/LEADER since October of 2022. These columns are the creation of Terry Landsgaard, consultant and advisor to the Elgin Historical Society on the Tribes of the Turkey River project. They appear here with the permission of the UNION/ECHO/LEADER.

December 6, 2023

Trapping or capture of fur bearing animals is a very old practice of the Native Americans as well as other people of the world. 

The methods of capture or trapping are the only thing different. These methods vary with the type of animal to be trapped or captured, its size and habitat.

Fur trading was long a major enterprise of Native Americans and their ancestors for themselves. Later, it became a worldwide operation with the European market. The French were the first Europeans to develop a trade with Native Americans. Other European countries as well as a colonial market furthered the market place.

Otter, muskrat, mink, weasels(ermine), martins, beaver, deer, bear and other furbearers were trapped/ captured. Snares, made of fibers from nettles and basswood, were used to fabricate nets that were placed across runs, slides or trails to ensnare the animals. If water features were part of the setup, the animal could be drowned. Otters, mink, weasels and muskrat could be snared as well as the always desirable BEAVER. (Not only was the beaver fur in high demand on the world market, but the tail was a delicacy for the Native American table!)

A baited trap system was also used. In this system, a heavy object was supported by a stick to which a form of bait was attached. When the bait was taken, the heavy object would fall trapping the animal that had taken the bait.

The trapper had to "run" their traps regularly to collect the game as well as resetting the snarls or baited traps. It may take the trapper days or weeks to "run" their lines.

When the "run" was over the furs had to be prepared for the market and potential sale or trade in the spring when the tribes met or traders came to deal for the furs.

Remember, bison robes were part of the fur trade.

 Ask the landowner before you explore on their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

November 29, 2023

Native American cooking is an interesting topic, as is all pioneer cooking--primitive in nature.

Much of the cooking was simply done over an open fire. The cooking of meat from bison, elk, deer and bear to other game animals, was simply stuck on sticks and roasted over the open fire. Fish could be done in this way, but many times the fish was "stewed" in a broth that added flavor and provided a place to add vegetables (like corn, beans and squash) to create a stew.

An earlier way to cook was to place the ingredients to be cooked in a hide or skin bag. Hot rocks were added to do the cooking. This process of adding hot rocks and taking out the cool rocks took time but worked well for stewed meats and other ingredients like corn, beans and squash, plus herbs and maple sugar to add sweetness and flavor.

 Kettles, pans and skillets were not available until European contact. Together with cutlery, axes and other tools the life of Native Americans improved greatly.

Refined sugar was nonexistent until traders came on the scene. Honey and maple sugar were the only sweeteners Native Americans had. Thus, diabetes was not present until the coming of the Europeans and refined sugar.

Remember, to ask permission of the landowners to explore on their land and DON'T DIG! 

-Terry Landsgaard

November 22, 2023 

The life of the native American was more ordered than you may think, even to the way family members arranged themselves in the wigwam.

The ground under the wigwam was first covered with cedar boughs. After the layer of bough were arranged, rush or cattail mats were laid down to cover the boughs. During the night, bedding made of blankets, deer or bear hides (with the hair attached) and pillows filled with duck down gave comfort to the wigwam occupants. During the day, the bedding was rolled up and used for seating in the wigwam.

A fire was centrally located that furnished warmth and an inside cooking area. In the winter, the occupants slept with their feet toward the fire which the elders kept burning through the night.

The native American mother's place in the wigwam was to the right or left of the wigwam opening. The daughters of the family were always next to their mothers. The sons were next to their fathers on the opposite side of the wigwam.

Women and girls made bark containers, baskets, nets and decorative pieces using quills, beads and shells. The young men reclined in the wigwam and played music on the drum or learned manly skills. The "grandmothers" sat opposite the door opening and furnished the teachings of "the Old Ones."

In the winter, stories were told by the "old ones" of great deeds of the warriors, holy men, visions and spiritual events of the nation or tribe. The oral history of a people that could not write but only remember and relate!!!

Are you ready to live in a wigwam? I hear it is really fun- according to a Ho-Chunk Chief!

Remember to ask the landowner for permission to explore on their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

November 15, 2023

Animal skins were used by native Americans exclusively until contact with Europeans. This contact allowed for the acquisition of canvas and other fabrics for their needs from traders or government sources.

All of the skins were tanned by women in the indigenous world. The skins taken in the winter from bison were the only salable skins that could be used for robes because the hair or fur was the best for this purpose. Skins taken during hunts in the summer were used for tepee or lodge coverings because they weren't as heavy and were more pliable for such coverings. Bison cows were hunted for this purpose.

Deer and elk skins were used for moccasins and ordinary clothing.

Bison robes or blankets served as an "overcoat" when needed or in some cases it was the only clothing other than an Indian style breechcloth.

The hides of old bison bulls were hard to tan, so strips of the hide were used for bindings and the soles of moccasins. The "wool" from the heads of old bull bison was used for spinning and plaiting ropes.

When it came to eating bison, a three year old cow was considered "the best for this purpose." The tongue and "hump ribs" were the best cuts for consumption. Liver, eaten raw and sprinkled with the contents of the gallbladder, was considered healing. 

With hunts taking place summer and winter, a meat supply could be assured.

Remember to ask the landowner for permission to explore their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

November 8, 2023 

In the fall of the year, native Americans would prepare storage pits called cache for their winter use. Pits were dug below the frost so the materials stored would not freeze or become unusable. The pits were of a bottle shaped design with the lower part of the pit wider than the mouth of the pit. When the pit had been dug, there was an order to the way foodstuffs were arranged for easy storage and retrieval.

Ear corn lined the inside surface of the pit, with loose shelled corn filling the inner cavity of the pit. Dried squash was buried in the loose shelled corn. The remaining shelled corn filled the pit. A skin/hide covered the opening of the pit. Grass insulation was placed on the skin/hide cover and weighted down with heavy wooden objects like logs. More grass was added on top of the wooden weights. Finally, another skin/hide cover was added and topped with earth. Now, winter storms and cold can come and the food source is safe.

Other foodstuffs, like dried berries, were stored in bark containers. Maple sugar, various varieties of nuts, tallow and dried meat procured from seasonal hunts, as well as fresh game like rabbits, squirrels and fish taken through the ice, finish the winter diet.

Remember to always ask permission from landowners to explore on their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

October 25, 2023

Native American used amulets or charms for all sorts of purposes and one that I obtained is a buffalo stone. What is a buffalo stone you might ask? Well, it is part of a fossil that occurred when the primordial seas occupied much of the plains of North America.

Cephalopods (relatives of the octopus and squid) were found in the primordial seas in a number of varieties or species. One of these cephalopods have left fossils in the Turkey River valley limestone outcrops or have been eroded from the rock layers and are found in stream or riverbeds. The local cephalopod is tubular with distinct section or chamber features on the surface of the tubular fossil. The organism was composed of 8 to 10 tentacles at the head end. This head contains a sharp beak (to tear their prey apart) and very developed eyes.

The rest of the cephalopod body was made up of chambers that could be filled with water when the organism wanted to sink (like a submarine) for feeding or if the cephalopod wished to ascend in the sea, water could be ejected from the chambers. A siphon united the chambers for the purpose of water movement.

As the cephalopods died, their bodies would fall to the ocean/sea bottom and be covered by sediment. The living material would become fossilized over time with the living materials replaced by materials such as silica.

As the seas died and the rock layers produced during the various geologic periods became exposed, the cephalopod sections broke apart and were scattered; the fossilized sections looked like a rock/stone buffalo. Thus, the Buffalo Stone Amulet came to be in the lore of the Plains Indian tribes.

The one I have came from a local individual and I do not know the origin.

Remember to ask the landowner for permission to explore on their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

October 18, 2023 

There are many beautiful Native American artifacts that need to be preserved. Yesterday, October 12, 2023, I saw a beautiful beaded "purse" (12x14 inches) at the German-American Museum in St. Lucas, Iowa. This "purse" had been given that day to the museum for preservation. The origin of the "purse" came with quite a story.

It seems that an aunt, from Harmony, Minnesota, had acquired the beaded "purse" from another family member. This individual had "traded a horse" for the "purse." (How interesting that such a trade with a Native American had involved a horse!)

I sent a picture of the "purse" to Chief Chloris Lowe of the Ho-Chunk Nation about its origin and patterning. Chief Lowe believed that it could be Ho-Chunk because some beads have an Oneida origin. But, he said, "It is a very nice piece."

Over the last several years, I have purchased a number of Oneida made pieces from New York. These can be seen at the German-American Museum in St. Lucas, together with a number of other artifacts.

Garage sales and thrift shops can prove worthwhile for all sorts of things including artifacts.

Remember to ask permission of the landowner to explore on their land, and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

October 11, 2023 

There are always plants and animals that take a commanding role in the life of human beings. One of the "commanding plants" that indigenous people used to a great extent was the cattail (Typhus latifolia). Most of us know this plant that is found in marshy areas or in road ditches. Cattails have long strap-like leaves that can be a number of feet long. These strap-like leaves are about an inch wide and pointed. At the base of the plant a number of leaves form a stalk. In the center of the stalk you will find a pithy column of crunchy edible tissue that will remind you of asparagus. Native Americans used the pithy stalk in their diet.

The flowering stalk is straight and dowel-like with the female part of the flower resembles a "sausage-like" structure that contains the pistils of the flower. Above this structure you will find a shaggy structure that contains the pollen (the male reproductive cells). The pollen falls on the "sausage-like" structure to pollinate the ovules (the female reproductive cells). This pollen can be eaten and will color the food you make yellow. The "sausage-like" structure can be boiled, dipped in butter and eaten like "corn on the cob."

Now, for the rhizomes of the cattail. You will have to dig them out of the muck in which they are growing. The rhizomes can be boiled and eaten or flour made from the rhizomes.

The strap-like leaves can be used for mat making. The Native Americans used mats made from cattail leaves to cover the framework of a wigwam in the summer because the leaves would shrink as they dried allowing ventilation for the wigwam. Cattail mats covered the earth on the interior of the wigwam. The Ho-Chunk made cattail mats that operated like Venetian blinds for greater air flow.

Remember to ask the landowner for permission to explore on their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

October 4, 2023

 The native Americans needed some sort of sealant to seal the seams of canoes and other vessels that needed to be watertight--like birch bark containers.

The sap or gum from any evergreen tree could be used to make pitch, but it was said by expert pitch makers that trees growing near the water had the best gum/sap for making pitch.

In the summer, the "pitch makers" would go into the woods and scrape the bark from sections or portions of the selected trees. Later in the season, the gum with adhering bark fragments were put into basswood fiber bags. These basswood fiber bags were placed in a kettle of boiling water and boiled.

The gum escaped the bags and was skimmed off the surface of the water. This gum was stored in bark dishes/containers and covered before it was stored for later use. When it was time to use the gum/pitch, it was boiled to the proper consistency. Charcoal made from cedar chips was powdered and added to the pitch. This final addition "firmed up the pitch." The prepared pitch was applied by spatulas to the canoe or other vessel that needed to be sealed.

Remember to ask the landowner for permission to explore on their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

September 27, 2023

“How can you potentially find places of indigenous habitation?” -- is a question asked by many people that have become interested in those that "came before"- Native Americans.

So, I got to thinking about some potential answers to that question. When you come in contact with caves, caverns, sinkholes and rock shelters look around you!

   Do you see soot streaks on the walls or ceiling that indicate fire and possible habitation?

   Do you find rolls of bark that appear to have been soaked in fat, oil or pine sap?

   Do the bark rolls appear to have been burned at one end?

   Are there a number of torch-like objects on the cave or rock shelter floor?

   Are there broken animal bones present?

   Are there pottery sherds scattered about on the cave or rock shelter floor?

   Are there beads made from stone, bone, shell or glass present?

   Do you find pieces of leather or prepared animal skins?

If there has been human habitation by Native Americans, you may find "worked" pieces of chert/flint or even arrowheads or flakes. Do you find "odd" objects that defy identification?

If "yes" occurs in any situation, you may have found/located a site of human occupation. Contact the University of Iowa State Office of Archaeology in Iowa City, Iowa, a member of the Tribes of the Turkey River project or me!

Remember to ask the landowner for permission to explore on their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

September 20, 2023 

I have mentioned various stone tools at different times in my writings, but there were tools and objects made from copper in the same areas associated with the Ho-Chunk and Chippewa. 

Copper was found in its native form near Lake Superior. This native copper didn't have to go through the smelting process before use. It was malleable naturally. Because of tribal associations with Iowa, it is no wonder that copper objects also appeared in Iowa. I have seen copper beads that came from the area around the mouth of the Wisconsin River. In fact, copper beads were offered for sale, to me, on at least one occasion!

Axes, or hatchets, were quite common, as well as spuds (chisels used to made openings in river ice), gouges, spiles (small troughs used for sap collection at sugar making time) spatulas, knives, spear and arrowheads, harpoon points, pikes (pointed poles used to move logs in the river), punches, awls, drills, spikes, needles and fishhooks.  All of these objects would not have been discarded, because of their value, but carried into their next area of habitation.

The only other metal that was mined, smelted and used in this area of the Upper Mississippi River valley was lead. Mining was quite extensive and intensive by the indigenous people in the Dubuque, Iowa and Galena, Illinois areas.

With the traders came all sorts of objects made of various metals. Life for the indigenous people became easier with the advent of Europeans and trade.

Remember to ask the landowner for permission to explore their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

September 13, 2023

Most, if not all, cultures make decorative handicrafts to use in displays or self-adornment.  It doesn't make any difference if you are of European origin or Native American.

Recently, I made mention of some Native Americans using "glue" in the mixture of clay, shell fragments and other materials when they made pottery, which seemed strange.

How did the Native Americans make the "glue" and from what materials? So, I looked up an indigenous glue recipe.

The main ingredient was made from sturgeon. The sturgeon is a cartilaginous fish--it doesn't have a backbone. What serves as a backbone is the notochord, a cartilaginous rod of tissue. This notochord is pulled out of the flesh of the sturgeon, cut into pieces and "fried" in a pan or other vessel. While the fried material is still warm, a pointed stick was swirled in the fried material and the glue was wound on the stick manifesting itself as the first "Glue Stick!" This glue stick was stored until it was needed. You simply warmed the stick to use.

If you don't know what a sturgeon looks like, go online.

Remember to ask the landowners for permission to explore their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

August 30, 2023 

I don't know about you, but many people like to go to garage sales, flea markets or auctions. You never know what you are going to find. Sometimes the materials found are just "junk, " but then, if you look hard and long enough, the real "jewels" may be found.

The Jewels can be of importance. Every now and then, you will find arrowheads, ax heads, beads, beaded articles, and baskets made by people like Emma Big Bear or other Ho-Chunk basket weavers, beaded leather shirts and dresses, pottery from an area field or a Southwestern place.

Places like the Turkey River Mall in Elkader may be a good place to shop and make some interesting finds. The provenance may be known, so ask about the origin of some of the more questionable materials you may find. I have found ax heads, baskets, beaded articles made by local native Americans, a beaded deerskin shirt, a fringed deerskin dress, pottery and many drawings, prints and paintings done by current and past native Americans of note.

Emma Big Bear's baskets may be found at household auctions in the Northeast Iowa area, seeing that she worked in the Marquette-McGregor area. Other Ho-Chunk artist's works may be found in the area because the Wisconsin Dells and Black River Falls Reservation is not that far from those of us that live and work in Iowa.

But, nothing is like finding your own artifacts in a field or creek bed!!!

Always be careful of materials that appear to be connected to burial sites. Call the State Archaeologist's Office if there is a question.

Remember to ask the landowner's permission to explore on their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

August 23, 2023 

If you were living in the Turkey River valley this time of the year and were part of an indigenous group, you would be preparing to go on an extended bison hunt to precure the meat necessary for your winter supply.

The Ho-Chunk always went bison hunting in large numbers. It is said that while on a bison hunt, they would/may have encountered enemy groups and fights may take place. Some in the hunting party may have enjoyed these encounters as much as the hunting itself. The Missouri, Oto and Iowa may have joined the Ho-Chunk in the seasonal hunt. Many women would have gone along to help prepare the meat and hides. Locating the bison was not all that difficult because of the dust that trampling bison could create. 

The hunters headed out early in the morning on the fastest horses, trying to ride along the right side of the female bison because they would run away before the bulls. The meat and hides from females was considered more desirable to that of bulls for a number of reasons. Later in the hunt, the desired bulls were taken. The bison were taken with bow and arrow or stabbed with a lance while on horseback.

While hunting bison, members of the hunt were apt to come in contact with enemy groups. The result of this encounter would be the taking of scalps as well as bison meat and hides. Upon returning to their respective villages, there would be Victory Dances to display their trophies of encounters.

For those of you that have not eaten bison, you have a treat to experience!

Remember to ask the landowner for permission to explore his land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

August 16, 2023   

When I was growing up, there was an interesting museum in McGregor, Iowa. Moody's Musical Museum was a "have to see" stop when vacationing in the Mississippi River town in the post WWII years.

Ira Moody was in the forefront of collecting many things including native American materials; some of which may have been of special origin and original ownership.

Emma Big Bear was living part of that time in McGregor. She was still making and selling her baskets. In fact, the famous photograph of Emma Big Bear has Emma wearing a beautiful beaded collar that was owned by Ira Moody and was simply on "loan" for the photograph. ( I knew the person to whom Ira Moody sold this beaded collar when the museum materials were sold in about 1977. The ultimate owner was a collector in Minnesota.) D.A. Martin was the ultimate owner of many of the items Ira Moody had for sale. Kissing Otter bracelets, trade crosses, silver earring, brooches, bracelets and other trade silver pieces that had been part of the fur trade were part of the "trove" that entered the market after the museum was broken up. Much of the materials came from the valley of the Mississippi River and its tributaries like the Turkey River.

We must remember that many items that were bought and sold may have had questionable origins. One must be careful of materials that may have been part of burials. If there is a question as to the origin of artifacts, notify the Office of the State Archaeologist.

Remember to ask the landowner before you explore and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

August 9, 2023 

The Ho-Chunk were relatively late comers to live in Iowa, and the Turkey River valley in particular. By the time of the Neutral Zone/Ground, many of the old ways were no longer in practice--like the use of wooden vessels that involved a lot of work when using the methods prior to the introduction of European axes, knives and other implements. Shells were utilized and wooden spoons were in use. I have known this fact from first hand experience.

For cooking, clay pots were used prior to the advent of manufactured pots and pans.  Most of the clay vessels were large with round bottoms that hung over the fire when cooking was done. Blue clay was mixed with shell shards, glue from sturgeon vertebrae and the gelatinous material from deer antlers. This gelatinous material helped with the cohesiveness of the clay.

The pots were made or formed by hand or the clay was pressed into holes in the ground of desired shapes and sizes that had been lined with green leaves. These clay vessels were dried over a slow fire in small kilns made for the purpose. Some of the pots had geometric designs on their surfaces or irregular patterns caused by the impression of leaf veins. Clay pots were certainly an improvement over skin bags and heated rock for cooking!

Remember to ask the landowners permission to explore on their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

August 2, 2023

The dream life of Native Americans is very important. As children, they were instructed about the importance of their dreams that would guide them in their adult dreamworld and lives.

They, the youth, were cultivated from early childhood to "try to dream and remember what they dreamt." This helps the "imagination" and "desire" to experience meaningful dreams. The "childish" dreams had no attachment, but they prepared the individual for important dreams of the future.

"Purity of Life and thought" were essential to learning ones' "guardian spirit." Fasting, isolation/solitude, and meditation were conditions under which dreams could be experienced.

"The Dream" was of great importance in the life of the individual.

The child's mind's expectation of a dream, created mental stimulus from the lack of food induced by fasting. Unfamiliar impressions in life situations would have affected the physiology and psychology of the person.

Native people seem to inherently believe that "the spirit" of the individual in a picture or representation of the individual dwells in the picture or representation. For this reason having a picture taken was frowned upon. One of the most powerful spiritual movements of Native Americans occurred in the 1800s when a native prophet named Wavoka initiated the Ghost Dance among his adherents. Because of the nature of Wavoka's prophecy and the strength of the native American involvement, the Federal government outlawed the Ghost Dance and Wovoka's movement.  Read about Wavoka and the Ghost Dance, e.g., The Lakota Ghost Dance of 1890 by Rani-Henrik Andersson. 

Remember to ask the land owner to explore their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

July 26, 2023 

In order to have the various tribes cooperate with the United States Federal Government and its programs of enticement and treaty arrangements, the government established a program of annuities.  These annuities provided materials for the tribes that weren't always available to them but they were to the United States Government.

The Ho-Chunk were enticed to move into the Neutral Zone (ground) partly by the system of monthly annuities provided to the various villages and its members. These commodities were passed out at the Subagency located about three miles southwest of the current town of Festina, Iowa and about three miles north of the current town of St. Lucas, Iowa. The tribal members had to travel to this location to pick up the annuity allotment as the government didn't take the allotments to the individual villages. The reason the government gave out the allotment was because the normal life of hunting and fishing would be disrupted by their move from Wisconsin.

The kinds of materials in the annuity are varied. The following is a list of allotment commodities: pipes, combs, guns, powder, lead for bullets and shot, tin dishes, sewing materials like needles, scissors, thread, thimbles, calico, broadcloth, linsey-woolsey and flannel, knives, axes, and the Hudson Bay Blankets of different pointages (1 point, 2 point and 3 point). Livestock was also part of the package.

A cash payment was given to provide money for other needed supplies.

It seems, from what I have read, that all of the tribes received the same basic commodities in an annuity settlement.

When it came to honesty in Treaty agreements by the United States Government, that was another situation.

Remember to ask the landowner's permission to explore on their property and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

July 19, 2023

Emma Big Bear's (annual) Birthday celebration took place on Saturday July 1st in the Marquette, IA, Civic Center from 10am to 3pm.

For those of you that don't know, Emma Big Bear was the daughter of Chief Big Bear and Blue Wing of the Ho-Chunk Nation (tribe). She was born on July 5, 1869 in Tomah, Wisconsin and had a limited education in a government Indian school.

The Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) Nation was moved from Wisconsin to Iowa in the 1840s. They were given land along the Turkey River in the Neutral Zone that separated the Sauk and Fox (to the south) from the Sioux (to the north).

The Ho-Chunk were known for making baskets from the growth rings of the Black Ash. Emma learned to make baskets and became known for her expertly made baskets.

Some of the Ho-Chunk were moved to a reservation in Nebraska and Emma's husband, Wm Henry Holt, was from that part of the tribe. After they were married, they returned to the Valley of the Mississippi River and settled in the "second coulee north of Waukon Junction." 

Emma and William lived the "old ways" in a wigwam and made baskets for sale. Gathering ginseng and other herbs, added to the merger income. They had one daughter, Bertha Emiline, who died during WWII. It is said that Emma was known to be the last Ho-Chunk to live the "old ways" in Iowa, especially in NE Iowa!

The expert quality of her baskets and her visibility in the area, made her baskets and bead work very desirable. To own a "real" Emma is still a desirable possession.

The celebration on Saturday included talks about the Ho-Chunk, Tribes of the Turkey River, Emma Big Bear and her family (some of whom were present), basket making as well as the construction of bows, arrows, knives, atl-atls and darts by Cliff Kulish of Prairie du Chein, who is known for his knowledge and expertise in indigenous crafts.

The Office of the State Archaeologist was present to examine artifacts and record locations of possible archaeological significance. 

The Emma Big Bear Foundation hosts these events yearly as part of their mission.

Remember to ask the landowner for permission to explore on their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

July 5, 2023         

Summer in the indigenous tribal village was a lot of coming and going. Once the people had returned from their winter encampments into the larger village setting it was time to plant corn and other vegetables like beans and squash. These field gardens would be allowed to grow undisturbed for most of the summer until the corn was knee high and the weeds would be causing a problem. Then, the corn would be hoed and made into a more orderly unit. The thought of roasting ears of corn in midsummer must have been a real enticement to keep the corn in good order. Vegetables like beans and squash were harvested as they matured.

The summer was the time to go on the "warpath” to settle the score with other tribes. Young male members of the tribes would prepare themselves for various encounters to protect their hunting areas or avenge a killed tribal member. But major hunts were the important reason to leave the comfort of the village. 

Bison hunts, especially in July, were major journeys for the hunters. Bison were not found in the Turkey River valley and the hunting party needed to travel west to the more open plains where "the buffalo roamed." Tepees fabricated from poles and bison hides were used for the hunts. The Bison meat was dried and the other important parts like the hides and bones were gotten ready for the trip home to the village. This cache of meat was essential for the tribe. These hunts would bring them in contact with other indigenous people of the plains and grasslands. Trade would have been a major part of these outings.

Members of the tribe that stayed in the village during the hunts busied themselves fishing and tending to the needs of the tribe while the others were gone. When the hunters returned and the roasting ears were ready, a feast was shared with all.

Hunts would occur at intervals during the summer and early fall to provide for the coming fall and winter. Berries and nuts were gathered during the summer and fall for the tribe and individuals.

Remember, always to ask permission to explore private land from the landowner and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

June 28, 2023

Summer in the indigenous tribal village was a lot of coming and going. Once the people had returned from their winter encampments into the larger village setting it was time to plant corn and other vegetables like beans and squash. These fields gardens would be allowed to grow undisturbed for most of the summer until the corn was knee high and the weeds would be causing a problem. Then, the corn would be hoed and made into a more orderly unit. The thought of roasting ears of corn in midsummer must have been a real enticement to keep the corn in good order. Vegetables like beans and squash were harvested as they matured.

The summer was the time to go on the "warpath,” to settle the score with other tribes. Young male members of the tribes would prepare themselves for various encounters to protect their hunting areas or avenge a killed tribal member. But major hunts were the important reason to leave the comfort of the village. Bison hunts, especially in July, were major journeys for the hunters. Bison were not found in the Turkey River valley and the hunting party needed to travel west to the more open plains where "the buffalo roamed." Tepees fabricated from poles and bison hides were used for the hunts. The Bison meat was dried and the other important parts like the hides and bones were gotten ready for the trip home to the village. This cache of meat was essential for the tribe. These hunts would bring them in contact with other indigenous people of the plains and grasslands. Trade would have been a major part of these outings.

Members of the tribe that stayed in the village during the hunts busied themselves fishing and tending to the needs of the tribe while the others were gone. When the hunters returned and the roasting ears were ready, a feast was shared with all.

Hunts would occur at intervals during the summer and early fall to provide for the coming fall and winter. Berries and nuts were gathered during the summer and fall for the tribe and individuals.

Remember always to ask permission to explore private land from the landowner and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

June 21, 2023   

I spent some time this week at Effigy Mounds National Monument. One of the staff was an archaeologist trained by Clark Mallem, deceased professor from Luther College, Decorah, Iowa. She attested to her experience with this great archaeologist. It is for this reason that I use a comment by Clark Mallem found in The Effigy Mounds: A Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument by Dennis Lenzendorf.

"Shortly before his death, Clark Mallen visited an archaeological site in northeast Iowa. A rock shelter overlooking a valley served as an archaeological lectern for Mallem to express his philosophy: "I think what is really valuable about the discipline of archaeology is that you eventually come to understand that there is an indefinable quality about life that exists right at the contact point between culture and the environment. I think we could call that indefinable quality-essence. It's the sense that one experiences being caught up in something far larger, far greater and virtually timeless in relationship to you as a person. That same force that activates the environment also activates you and you are a part of it. We need places like this rock shelter because what they really demonstrate is the attempt of human beings through time to deal with the fundamental problem that we face today and that is:  What is the human relationship with the environment?"

Remember to ask the landowner for permission to explore and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

June 14, 2023   

Fire was the first and best tool that the Indigenous people had.

Yes, there would have been fires caused by natural forces like lightning strikes, but a more dependable way to create fire had to be employed.

The "Spirit World" was addressed when fire was first experienced. The answer that was given by the supernatural was simple: "This (fire) was for warmth and for cooking." Traditional stories convey that fear at first filled the Indigenous people before they learned how to employ fire. Fire burned them which caused pain, but they soon learned that it even had a healing aspect as well.

Three methods were employed to produce fire. The simplest way was to strike two stones together to create a spark. This spark was "cast" into the tinder held with one of the stones in one hand. This "hot" spark would ignite the tinder to produce fire with a little encouragement--like gentle blowing.

Tinder was composed of shredded bark, dry moss or "punk" made of decayed wood.  The stones that were struck together to create a "hot" spark had to be very hard and not crumbly. Flint was excellent.

The second way of creating fire was to use flint and steel. The piece of flint was held in the hand above the tinder. The steel then struck the flint to generate a "hot" spark which would ignite the "punk" or tinder.

Friction was the third way fire could be generated. A bow turned a shaft of ash in a depression in a softer wood. The turning of the ash shaft rapidly generated enough heat to create a glowing ember. This ember could be placed in the tinder to create a fire.

It is interesting that before axes, downed logs were burned at various intervals to get sections of log at desirable lengths. 

Remember to ask the landowner for permission before exploring on their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

June 7, 2023

During the summer, indigenous family units moved back into a village setting from their winter locations.

Because of possible summer river flooding, the summer villages were built on higher terraces. The villages were moved periodically because of the depletion of necessary materials, like firewood. The dwellings were made out of a sapling framework that was covered with sheets of bark. In the time before elm disease, the bark of the American Elm furnished a very good sheet of bark to cover the framework. In areas where birches were abundant, birch bark was used. The arrangement of the village dwellings may have appeared to be haphazard, but the arrangement was based on family relationships or other practical considerations. Sweat lodges, drying racks and "privacy" buildings for women were also present.

Trails connected the garden and fields to the village, as well as to the burial grounds/mounds which were built on the valley rims or other high points in the area. The location of the burials provided the "spirits" access to the Milky Way or the Lands of the Dead.

The everyday activities took place outdoors, for the most part. Sleeping, storage and protection from unpleasant weather was afforded by the bark covered dwellings.

Sporting areas for games like Chunky may have been present. Chunky stones were wheel shaped stones with dished out centers that were rolled and used as a "rolling target" for spears or arrows. La Crosse may have been played as well. Even Native Americans had their "sporting" life!

Remember to always ask for permission from the landowner to explore their land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

May 31, 2023

When you think of Native Americans you may think of "smoking the peace pipe" or tobacco that they introduced to the European immigrants. 

The first thing that needs to be clarified is that modern "smoking tobacco" is Nicotiana tabacum and not the tobacco that was raised and smoked by Native Americans. The variety that they used was Nicotiana rustica - a harsh, strong flavored tobacco whose leaves and plants were smaller in size compared to the modern smoking tobacco. This tobacco was many times mixed with other material depending on the purpose of the use. Tobacco was/is considered to be a gift from the Great Spirit and was/is not used randomly but with great respect.

Pipes were used to smoke the tobacco and its many mixes. Pipes were made from a red stone called catlinite that was mined by Native Americans, primarily from the southwestern part of Minnesota. This catlinite was worked into the desired "pipe shape."  Other "workable" stones were employed in pipe making so catlinite was not the only stone material used.

Clay was fashioned into various pipe shapes. Upon completion, the pipes were fired before use. Pipe stems were fashioned from saplings of the desired diameter and length. The pith was removed to provide an air passageway. These pipe stems were decorated in the proper way according to specific tribal traditions and beliefs and inserted into the "bowl" to complete the pipe. Some pipes lacked stems and were simply tubular clay or stone pipes.

Pipes have been discovered in the Turkey River valley. I was having supper with friends at the White House Supper Club ( now called Sips and Savors) in St. Lucas, Iowa when one of the friends took a darkened catlinite pipe out of his pocket. He had acquired this pipe in Waucoma, Iowa that day. WOW!

Remember to always ask permission of the landowner to explore private property and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard 

May 24, 2023

We think of rivers in terms of transportation, recreation, and resources, but to hear how it affected the "building" of America in terms of lumber is a forgotten fact. It's "mind blowing" the number of sawmills that dotted the Mississippi Riverbanks. If you live in a house that is over a hundred years old, chances are the lumber was sawed along the Mississippi River, but the Turkey River produced its share of lumber, too.

Recently, I wrote about finding the location of a Native American built sawmill near the Subagency, north of St. Lucas, Iowa. Right after the article was published in the Union, I got several calls relating to the location of the mill in question. The first individual shared the names of families that could possibly help with the location, but the second caller was the owner of the land where the Native American's sawmill was located. It seems that an archaeologist from Decorah had asked to explore his land hoping to locate the mill site. The "key" to finding the lost mill was that the Turkey River had its course changed due to erosion problems. The mill site is now in wetlands, due to erosion control, not along the Turkey River. The archaeologist located the mill's true site after probing. The original Ho-Chunk constructed mill was said to have furnished the necessary lumber for the building of the Subagency, as well as Fort Atkinson.  The location is now recorded in the database used by the State Archaeologist to help preserve historical locations of significance.

Remember to always ask permission to explore on private land and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

May 17, 2023

 I came upon some interesting tidbits of information in a book, “The Winnebago Tribe” by Paul Radin, about the HO-Chunk.

Very few animals were taboo, but the following animals were not eaten: skunk, mink, marten, otter, weasel, all types of gophers, crows, eel, dogfish, horses and eagles.  Entails were not eaten from any kind of animal.  (Remember, the weasel family that contains mink and skunk, all have scent glands that smell bad!)

The Ho-Chunk had some interesting habits when it came to bows and arrows.  The bows were very simple in type with pointed ends.  These pointed ends were created by using an abrasive stone to sand the tips of the bow.  The bowstring was made from animal sinew.

There were five types of arrows used: bird arrows, small mammal arrows, deer and larger mammal arrows, and two types of arrows used for warfare/battle.  The bird and small mammal arrows and one type of warfare/battle arrow were simple pointed sticks without a head of any kind.

The deer and larger mammal arrows and one type warfare/battle arrow had flint fragments/chips attached to the arrow shaft. (Turtle claws were used, as well as flint chips to tip arrow shafts.)

The Ho-Chunk have no recent history of making flint arrowheads but used those they found on the ground created/knapped by other peoples. Ho-Chunk ancestors (e.g., the archaeologically defined Oneota culture) were well-versed in flintknapping of stone tools of all kinds.  Arrows without heads would have been easier to extract from a wound and easier to construct/make.  For a person shot with just a sharpened stick, the wound could still have been fatal, especially if a major artery or organ were struck.

Remember to always ask permission from the landowner to explore and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

May 10, 2023

Now would be the time to look for "surface artifacts" before the crops emerge from the ground!  It was easy to spot artifacts when you were behind a walking plow, but with the large machinery and enclosed cabs it is almost impossible to see artifacts. 

If you suspect that native Americans camped or lived in the area, and the area has been recently cultivated, there is always a chance that you may discover artifacts, if you carefully walk through the area.

If you do make discoveries, it is important that you notify the Office of the State Archaeologist with the location and type of artifact (if you know the type/s) that were discovered.  This information is confidential and only authorized individuals or groups have access to the location and type of artifacts that were found.

Creek beds are good places to look for artifacts, especially after flooding in the spring or other times.  Recently, I was told that all of the artifacts a family possesses came from creek beds on their farm.

The Turkey River valley is rich in indigenous presence!  All you have to do is look and respect.

Remember to always ask permission to explore from the landowner and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

May 3, 2023   

 The Archaeo-Blitz was a success on April 22!  Over 200 people attended, and every aspect of the program was well received.  Twenty new archaeological sites were documented by the Office of the State Archaeologist!

During the day, I had the chance to talk with a great number of people.  One of the individuals was interested in the location of a "supposed mill" on the Turkey River near the Subagency.  I remember hearing about a mill, but I was never sure of the exact location.  So, I went to "Vera's Stories" which is a collection of stories related by Vera Schneburger to Margaret Huber Zander.  According to Vera: " In 1849, Col. Thomas, who was an assistant of Rev. Lowery, was commissioned by the government to build the first dam and grist mill in Fayette County (Winneshiek County today). It was built on a bend of the Turkey River just south of the Indian Agency at Old Mission on the Winnebago reservation...I believe the Indian dam and mill just powered a sawmill, not a grist mill." 

I went looking for the location of the mill that was used and constructed by the Ho-Chunk near the Subagency on the Turkey River.  The site I observed was what I believe to be the most likely spot, because of what appears to be a mill race that "runs parallel to" the bank of the river.  The location of this mill should be documented for historical reasons.  I am willing to do the leg work!

Always ask permission to explore personal property and DON'T  DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

April 26, 2023 

 It's spring in the Turkey River valley.  Spring would have been a very important time for indigenous people after a long, hard and cold winter. 

Sugaring off would have taken a considerable amount of time.   Their dependance on maple sugar was significant, seeing it was an important part of their diet.  Honey was also an important source of sugar for their "limited" sugar consumption. 

But, with the warmer temperatures, the river would have thawed and made fishing easier than through the ice.  There were two primary means of acquiring fish: spearing and shooting.

Spearing consisted of a long stick/shaft provided with a bone or horn point.  This form of fishing was primarily done at night with the use of torches composed with pine pitch, which would give off a bright light. This light would lure fish to the area so they could be speared.

Shooting was done with a long sharp pointed stick/shaft that was discharged/released from an ordinary bow.

 Line fishing was made possible by using twisted lines/cords made from nettle fibers or those of the basswood.

Triangular weir (triangular fish traps) were used to capture fish.  These weirs were weighted with rocks and placed in the openings of "man made" dams in streams.  Rock enclosures were created in streams by encircling areas  with rocks and having an opening  upstream, so fish would be trapped once they were in the encloser.  The "corralled" fish were then caught and used.

Most fish were used by native Americans but several like dogfish (Bowfin) and eel (considered a Holy Fish) were not eaten.  (The Bowfin has a fin that extends from the head to the tail without interruption.  The mouth is filled with sharp needle-like teeth and the flesh is full of Y bones.  The only fish that compares to the Bowfin is the Alligator Gar!  Yuck!)

Crawfish and mussels were available in the streams and rivers of the area.  Then, for an indigenous salad, there were greens like; watercress, nettles and mustards.  And, maybe Iowa's Favorite Fungus- -MORELS!

Always ask permission from the land owner to explore and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

April 19, 2023

The Elgin Historical Society and its project, Tribes of the Turkey River, have been hosting speakers at their monthly meetings.

Maria Riha of Fort Atkison, Iowa, spoke about the history of Fort Atkinson from its purpose and inception to its preservation.  The stages of construction were discussed, as well as some of the import American figures involved in the life of the fort like:  Jefferson Davis, Zachary Taylor, members of the Boone and Hamilton families, Henry Wallace and Henry Dodge.

The Hewett Ulmstead Trading Post, located west of Fort Atkinson, along what is now Hwy 24, was archaeologically explored, as well as indigenous gardens that were located below the trading post.  Cindy Peterson, OSA, was involved in this state venture.  (I personally visited the site during the exploration on an almost daily basis.)

The Subagency, located southeast of Fort Atkinson, served as a school for the Ho-Chunk children who were present in the area after relocation from Wisconsin in the 1840s.  In the 1990s, an exploration was conducted in the area of the Subagency by Cindy Peterson, Al Becker, Marie Riha and school children of the area.  Many of the artifacts can be seen in the Museum located in Fort Atkinson, in conjunction with the Public Library.

The important feature of Marie’s talk was that it was a first-hand presentation, not from a book!  Mrs. Riha is active in all aspects of historical research and restoration.  Marie’s presentation was EXCELLENT!

Always ask permission to explore on private land and DON’T DIG!       

-Terry Landsgaard                                                                                                                                                               

April 5, 2023

Native Americans have thousands of years of history in Iowa, so much that it is all but impossible to explore all of the facets of their existence here.  But one aspect  that shouldn’t be neglected is to explore the stories that the Indigenous descendants may be able to share, if they are willing.

Many communities include Native American residents that are repositories of facts and lore.  At a coffee shop in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, stories were shared about areas to explore along the Turkey River and families that needed to be consulted about various encampments, sugar bushes and the presence of mounds that were visited on an annual basis until the 1960s. (Some mounds may be visited to this day by tribal members.)  This information is invaluable because the "tellers of the stories" were part of the families that did or experienced the annual visits to the mounds, family gatherings or encampments. These individuals need to be consulted before the next generation loses the story.  Each generation is further from the original stories and the stories may get changed. (One of the native descendants remembers a picture of an ancestor "with braids" hanging in a grandparent’s house.  The house and its artifacts are long gone.)

I have my own stories of Emma Big Bear, when I was growing up, and stories told to me by my aunt who was named after one of the Decorahs of the Ho-Chunk tribe.

You may not think the stories are important, but all stories add a piece to the overall history of an area and its people.

Remember to ask permission from the landowner before you explore and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

March 29, 2023 

There are a number of sites in NE Iowa that will provide a "sense" of what to "look for" when it comes to mounds and their settings.

The best place to visit is Effigy Mounds National Monument, south of Harper's Ferry and north of Marquette, along Hwy 76.  Over 200 Woodland period effigy mounds of birds and bears, as well as conical and linear mounds, can be observed.  Artifacts, of a non funerial type, are displayed in a museum setting in the Center.

Pikes Peak State Park, outside McGregor, Iowa, contains several mounds on the bluff that are outlined for easy identification.  Linear mounds and a bear effigy mound are present.

Fish Farm Mounds contain approximately 30 mounds from the Woodland period.  These features are located south of New Albin, Iowa, along the Mississippi River.

Slinde Mounds State Preserve near Waukon, Iowa involves a collection of 15 Woodland period mounds.  These mounds overlook the Upper Iowa River.  If you like to hike, this is the place.

Turkey River Mounds near Guttenburg, Iowa, are located on a 200 foot high ridge reached by a steep trail above the Turkey and Mississippi Rivers.  This ridge possesses 45 conical and linear Woodland period mounds.

All of the sites are an easy car trip in NE Iowa and only cost you "gas money!."

Remember to ask the land owner for permission to explore private lands and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

March 22, 2023

The University of Iowa Office of the State Archeologist sponsored a Community Archaeology Assistant Workshop for the Tribes of the Turkey River Project of the Elgin Historical Society on March 16th, 2023 as part of their grant process.  The 20 participants of the workshop were individuals that had expressed an interest in the Tribes of the Turkey River Project and its various levels of participation, especially working with artifacts discovered in the areas of the Turkey River and its tributaries.

The State Archaeologist Office, in conjunction with the University of Iowa and a $55,000.00 grant, found the need for preparing individuals to assist with the Project at the "grass roots level."  Thus, the interested parties were provided with the basic information as to a date, time and location of the proposed Workshop.

All of the participants were provided with a folder, by the OSA (Office of the State Archeologist) that contained information about:

A) Chipped Stone Artifacts: How they were made and their types like- bifaces, projectile points, knives, drills and unifacial tools.
B) Ground Stone Artifacts: How they were made and their types like- celts, axes, pipes, and gorgets.
C) Pre Contact Pottery: How it was constructed and decorated.
D) Bone and Shell Artifacts:  How bones and shells were used as decoration and/or function.

E) Artifact care: -Dos and Don'ts
F) Storage of artifacts and labeling.
G) Recording sites to the State Archeologists Office.

Every level of artifact discussion was "backed up" by experts.  The participants will put their knowledge "to work" at the Archeo-Blitz at the NFV Middle School, located between Clermont and Elgin, Iowa, on April 22, 2023.  Watch the Union or other newspapers and/or bulletin boards for more information.

Remember to ask permission to explore from the land owner and DON'T DIG!

Terry Landsgaard

March 15, 2023

One of the residual materials that can be found in the Turkey River valley, left by Indigenous people, are pottery sherds.  Pottery sherds are important artifacts.  These breakable ceramic pieces are almost indestructible when found in the environment.  Remember, they are fired clay like bricks. 

Originally, the Indians used skin bags for cooking, which was very labor intensive.  Hot rocks were placed in the skin bags to do the cooking.  Pottery was made for cooking, serving, eating and artistic expression.  Pottery appeared in the Woodland Period about 2,800 years ago, so, the Turkey River valley fits the time frame.

The decorative or artistic expression had regional aspects and characteristics indigenous to various groups.  Pottery relates to time and space.  Sherds of pottery can be put together like a puzzle if enough pieces are found to form the original object.

Pottery is made up of clay, sand, crushed stone, ground mussel shells, ground fired clay fragments, and various plant fibers. The plant fibers were added to avoid shrinkage and cracking during drying or firing.

Coiled pottery was made when a clay mixture was rolled between the hands into a coil.  The coils were placed on top of each other and pinched together to form the wall or sides of the desired vessel.  After construction, the vessel was dried and fired.

With paddle pottery, the clay mixture was formed using a wooden paddle that would leave a pattern on the sides of the vessel being constructed.  Hands were used to finish the vessel before it was dried and fired.  Pinch pottery vessels were formed with the potter's hands before drying and firing.  All types of pottery vessels were "fired" in a prepared firing method that depended on the vessel or type of clay mixture used by the potter.  The fired pieces resemble stoneware.

You may be lucky enough to find sherds of pottery in gravel beds near believed habitation sites.

Always ask permission to explore on private property and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard 

March 8, 2023

One of the things that has happened since I started The Tribes of the Turkey River article series is that people will come up to me and start telling stories about people, places and things that they are aware of in the area that deal with "the Indians." 

Many will talk about Emma Big Bear, because they remember her in the Marquette/McGregor area, making and selling Ho-Chunk type baskets made out of black ash or other materials that the Ho-Chunk used (I am thinking about a lidded rice basket that seemed to be made out of reeds or grasses). 

Some people will mention the Meskwaki, but most of the time people will mention areas on their farm or another's farm that contained mounds or scores of artifacts that were plowed up while the land was being cultivated using a moldboard plow and horse.  In those days, the farmer was walking behind the horse and plow and was able to pick up the artifacts.  These artifacts got stuck into a pocket and taken home to be placed in a cigar box or on a window edge in the barn.

I was stopped while I was writing this article by a lady that mentioned artifacts on her family farm near Douglas (Auburn), Iowa on the Turkey River.  As soon as I get pictures of these artifacts, they will be sent to the Office of the State Archeologist for inclusion in the state records of locations.

Recently, a farmer came up to me and started mentioning mounds and artifacts that have been located in an area that one would not think about investigating.  The area contains the Little Turkey River, that flows through a flatter area that merges into an oak-hickory savanna.  This area would have been most conducive to a summer camping or hunting area.  But, many artifacts have been found in the area with a number of mounds in the remaining hilly portion.  So, now it is time to "look and see."

Always ask permission to explore private property and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

March 1, 2023

The past week, I decided to visit Elkader, Iowa on the Turkey River.  Elkader is just above the confluence of the Volga and Turkey Rivers and a very likely spot for Native American habitation.

The most interesting part of my trip was the journey on the ridge from West Union, Iowa, which sits on Otter Creek, a tributary of the Turkey River.  The Driftless Area breaks on both sides along Hwy 56, revealing a network of hills and valleys that would have served as wintering areas as well as rich storehouses of plant and animal resources. 

The limestone outcrops would have provided chert nodules as well as potential galena deposits. 

Metamorphosis rocks that would have been found in glacial outwash materials can be found on the river bed. This glacial material could furnish hammer stones, ax heads, celt making material, pestles and other tool making materials that required a more resistant rock material than could be found in the sedimentary deposits of limestone and sandstone along the Turkey River. 

As you drive along Hwy 56, you will notice rock outcrops, rock shelters, networks of streams, springs and water impoundments.  All of the water courses empty into the Turkey River and its tributaries.

The Driftless Area contains plants and animals that preexisted the last Ice Age 10,000 years ago.  So, the Indigenous peoples had an even richer storehouse of materials.

Can you imagine, as you entered this area along the Turkey River, (not expecting human habitation), to smell wood smoke and see smoke rising above a forested hill and hear the sound of someone beating on a log! 

Always ask to explore private property and Do Not Dig!

-Terry Landsgaard

February 22, 2023

The Turkey River valley is a treasure trove of materials made and used by pre contact peoples.  The existence of these peoples is really not hidden if you know how and where to look. 

One of the most regionally significant areas and features are the mounds at Effigy Mounds National Monument.  So, I hope to do a basic examination of mound facts in this article that may be used to possibly locate mounds in the Turkey River valley and assist in their preservation.  There have been excavations in a number of areas that could have contained mounds, but the existence of their presence and preservation didn't come to light.

Humans have lived in eastern Iowa for over 10,000 years.  Dome shaped conical mounds began to be constructed about 2,500 years ago in the area where woodland Indians were living.  Conical mounds of earth are the simplest and most common mound.  These are usually burial sites.  Generally, the conical mounds are 10 to 20 feet in diameter and originally from 2 to 8 feet high.

Linear (long sausage shaped) mounds were about 6 to 8 feet across and up to 100 feet long.  Originally, the linear mounds were 2 to 4 feet high.

Compound mounds are a combination of linear and conical mounds and are likened to a string of beads.  Conical mounds are connected to each other by a linear mound.  This type of mound group will vary in length.

 Effigy Mounds began to be constructed about 1,400 years ago where they were used for religious or clan purposes.  This purpose was indicated by the fire pits in certain strategic areas of the effigy, like the head and heart.  Bear and bird effigies were common, as these animals were considered guardian animals.  Effigy mounds were not commonly used for burials.   ( I know of one effigy bundle burial in the Clermont area done by Chief Big Bear and his daughter Emma Big Bear.  The source of my information was Mr. Henry Follet.  He told me personally before his death.)

Natural erosion wears away all types of mound groups.  So, the forms may not be distinct.  If you suspect mounds are present in the Turkey River valley, contact a member of the Tribes of the Turkey River or Mr. John Doershuk, the Iowa State Archeologist in Iowa City.

Remember to ask permission to explore on private property and DO NOT DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

February 15, 2023

The Turkey River valley was/is basically a wooded area that gradually merges into prairie and oak-hickory savanna.  Because of this situation, objects made out of wood would naturally be quite common. Wooden objects would be more easily constructed than objects of stone or bone, especially when the manufacturing tools themselves were likely made of stone or bone!

Certain trees would be more desirable than others for construction of objects.  Ash was commonly used while hazel, elder, cedar, oak, ironwood, basswood and maple were each used for special purposes.  Special features like burls were sought out to make certain objects like bowls.  Bowls were commonly made from burls that were scooped out while they were green and easy to work.  Burls are lump-like growths on trucks or limbs of trees.  After scooping out the extra wood, the burls were allowed to dry.

Spoons were made from a single piece of wood with a knot that could be hollowed or scooped out to form the bowl of the spoon.  Various trees could be used for this purpose.

Snowshoe frames were made from wooden strips that had been placed in hot water to make the strips more pliable or bendable.  Ash was a good wood for this purpose as well as hickory.

Backpack frames were made in the same way as snowshoes.  Basswood was a primary wood used because it is lightweight.

Paddles for various purposes were made from a variety of woods.  Canoe paddles were carved out of cedar or spruce and were made to specific dimensions because of the user's size.  Paddles made from maple were used in the "sugaring off" process in the spring of the year.  Paddles were also made for the spreading of pitch, grease, or edible materials.

Troughs were made out of hollowed out basswood logs for boiling down maple sap during "sugaring off."

Drums were constructed from hollowed out sections of logs of the correct dimensions.

Wooden objects were/are susceptible to rot or decomposition, so these objects, if found, will be in protected areas such as caves, caverns and rock shelters. There are also unique environments or family possessions that will supply the real treasures.

Always ask permission to explore private land from the landowner and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

February 8, 2023

The daily existence of ancestral Native Americans in what is now northeast Iowa was as complicated as some aspects of modern life; if not more so!  If you need rope, twine, cordage, thread or floss you simply go to a store that sells such products and buy them. But not so for the Indigenous people.  For them, all of the products needed to be made by hand from materials found in the environment.

The basswood tree (Tilia americana) was a major source of cordage.  Fibers from the basswood were very important.  These fibers lie between the bark and wood. Bark was removed from the trunk of the tree by cutting the bark off at ground level and about "head high" up the trunk. The bark sheet was then cut into strips about four inches wide.  These strips were placed in water and allowed to soak for about ten days.  The soaked strips were softened and had a greasy texture.  The outer bark was removed from the inner bark fibers.  These fibers were rolled into coils and dried.  Bags were made from the thicker fibers, while twine was made from the thinner layers of fiber.

Slippery elm (Ulmus) was used in the same way as basswood.  However, elm bark didn't need to be soaked before use in making twine.

Nettles (Urica) stalks were cut and placed in water and used in the same way as basswood and slippery elm.  The nettle stalks were cut and placed in water for about ten days.  Softened nettle stalks were removed from the water and the fibers were removed from the stalks.  Nettle fibers were used in the making of fish nets, snares and for more delicate purposes.

Fiber constructed objects have been found in various rock shelters and cave environments like the Gottschall rock shelter of Wisconsin.

All of the above mentioned fiber producing plants are found in the Turkey River Valley.

Always remember to ask permission to explore on private property and DON'T DIG!

-Terry Landsgaard

February 1, 2023

Many of the more degradable materials used by the indigenous people have not endured to the present, with the exception of unique areas or situations, like the Gottschall Rock Shelter in Wisconsin.  Moccasin soles, birch bark torches and other more degradable materials were found in the shelter when it was first discovered.  This unique situation has been securely protected and exploration is rarely allowed.  I have wanted to experience this shelter since I first was made aware of it when Effigy Mounds provided teacher recertification hours for area teachers.  Every time we tried to visit, natural events, like flooding, prevented our visit.  We did visit numerous other caves and rock shelters to view pictographs (pictures drawn on the rock walls) and petroglyphs( carvings made into the rock walls)  during our Effigy Mounds summer classes.

Are there such situations in the Turkey River valley or are they only a Wisconsin phenomena?  Well, maybe it is time for the Tribes of the Turkey River to explore the caves, caverns and rock shelters of the Turkey River valley and its tributaries like Otter Creek, the Volga River and other smaller creeks/streams.  Now, it is time for you that read these little articles to get involved in the Project.  Do you know of a cave, cavern or rock shelter that could hold artifacts, a pre contact living situation, pictographs, petroglyphs or other unique or interesting features that you can't explain or appear to be suspicious in origin?  Please contact the Tribes of the Turkey River at 1-563-379-3393 or the State Archeologist John Doershuk at 1-319-530-9148.

Remember, respect private property rights -- always ask permission before you explore and please do not dig!

-Terry Landsgaard,

January 25, 2023

It seems that all people of the past were very saving.  They allowed nothing to go to waste, regardless of the amount of the saved material.  Indigenous people, because of their demanding lives, were exceedingly saving and it is with some of these materials that we gain eyesight into their lives and way of life.

Bones of animals including human bones, are made of calcium phosphate which is apatite, a mineral with hardness of 5 on the Mohs Scale.  Bones break down rather slowly, so objects made of bone may be found in association with villages, wintering areas or other places of tribal habitation--not just burial grounds.  Sites of animal slaughter, as well as environment finds, could or can supply bone materials for various purposes.   Different animals, like  birds and small mammals, produce different sizes and thicknesses of bone.  These smaller, thinner bones could be used to make tools for more delicate work, like needles.

Larger bones from bison, deer, bear and elk were broken to obtain the marrow that fills the cavity within the bones.  Marrow is a fatty material that is very nutritious ad provided an extra special food source for indigenous people.  Broken bones provided a sharp edge that could be used for bone knives for cutting flesh from carcasses or removing other materials.  Rib bones were also very good for bone knives.  The edges of these bone knives could be sharpened by rubbing them on rocks.  Shards of broken bones could be used for awls to make holes in hides and other materials.  Needles were made from these shards.  Even arrow points were made from shards of bone.  The large bones of bison, deer and elk, would be fashioned into hide scrapers.  Their length allowed for extra force to exerted when hides were being prepared.  Shoulder blades of bison, deer and elk made excellent hoe heads!  Smoking pipes were known to have been fashioned from bones.

Stone objects are not the only artifacts available for study.  So, in our study of the Tribes of the Turkey River, we must be open to many aspects of the indigenous past.

Remember to ask before you explore!

-Terry Landsgaard

January 18, 2023

Before contact, all that the indigenous people needed in the form of tools, dyes, food stuffs or wearing apparel had to be made personally or acquired from a trade network of tribal or intertribal trading.

Prepared animal skins could be used for clothing, cooking bags and tipi coverings.  Skin preparation was a time consuming activity and involved different processes.

When it came to small fur bearing animals like otter, muskrat and mink, the animal was first skinned by cutting the skin around the lower extremities and "slipping the skin" off the body toward the head where the skin was freed from the carcass by cutting around the eyes, mouth and nose.  All of this was originally done by the use of a stone knife.  The "inside out" skin was then  placed on a drying frame made of branches, to stretch the skin.  The fat and fleshy "remains' were removed from the stretched skin.  After the skin had dried, it was ready to use, trade or sale.  If the skin was going to be used for a medicine bag, the skin was turned "right side out" and filled with dry grass which absorbed the moisture and oily residue.

Deer skins were also prepared for "home use" by the indigenous people.  Bone scrapers were fabricated from large animal bones to help remove the fat, flesh and connective tissue from the hide.  After the deer was acquired in a hunt or other means, the deer was skinned.  The hide was placed on the ground and stretched so the hide could be sheared of hair.  After the shearing process, the hide was soaked in clean water for two days. The final hair and fat removal took place when the hide was placed over a log and bone scrapers were used to finish the hide.  Deer brains were rubbed into the hide to soften it.  Remember, brain tissue consists of basically fats/lipids, so it was excellent for the softening of the hide.

Bison hides were prepared in basically the same way as deer.  Male bison were thicker skinned so their hides were used to make moccasin soles and cooking bags.  The female bison furnished the material for tipi covers.

Nothing went to waste in the demanding environment of the indigenous world!

Remember, to ask permission before you explore!

-Terry Landsgaard

January 11, 2023   

How did  people move from place to place within the Turkey River valley?  Primarily, they walked during the precontact era, following the course of the Turkey River and its tributaries. Dugout canoes and maybe a casual birch bark canoe could have been used, but much of the waterway was not deep enough that canoes could be used easily. 

It was only with the coming of the Europeans that the horse would become available to the indigenous people.  The data of the presence of the horse in NE Iowa is relatively rare.  There may have been the presence of some horses in the 1700s, but only a very few.  It wasn't until the coming of the Ho-Chunk in the 1800s that the presence of the horse had an appreciable presence.  These animals would have been brought from Wisconsin when the Ho-Chuck were moved into the Neutral Ground along the Turkey River in the 1840s.

Tribes in the Southwest and Plains had acquired horses much earlier from Mexico, when the Spanish arrived  in the 1500s.  This acquisition of the horse altered the indigenous people tremendously and I would say that the horse is the only true gift from the Europeans!

East Coast tribes experienced the horse from European settlers or with the Spanish in the Gulf region.  Some tribes developed a good relationship with the horse while others were less involved.

Where the tribes developed: woodland, desert or plains affected their relationship and need for the horse.

They always had FEET!

 Always ask permission before you explore!

-Terry Landsgaard

January 4, 2023    

Medicinal plants were well known by the various indigenous groups that frequented Iowa.  These plants were harvested during various times of the year.  Knowledge of these special plants was passed from one generation to another, especially among the healers or medicine men of the tribe.  Intertribal contact and trade helped with the spread of medicinal plants and remedies. As non-indigenous peoples entered the area along the Turkey River, the medicinal knowledge spread.  Some of these plants are still included as part of the pharmacopeia of modern drugs for salves, teas, ointments and poltices. 

A number of plants that are part of this medicinal list are: Milkweeds (Asclepias) used for bronchitis, pneumonia and influenza or St. John's Wort (Hypericum), for the treatment of depression and nervous disorders.

     If you need to disinfect something, the juice of Wild Garlic or Onion (Allium)  is an antiseptic.

     Wild Licorice (Glycyrrhiza) can be used for coughs, colds and sore throats.

     Echinacea  (Echinacea) was and is used for cold and flu remedies.  (Look at the formulation of flu and   cold remedies.)

     Mayapple (Podophyllum) has been used for psoriasis, worts and to inhibit the growth of cancerous tumors.

     Yarrow ( Achillea) has been used as an anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antiseptic.

If you don't recognize these plants, get a good plant guide in a bookstore.

Always ask permission to enter other people's property.

-Terry Landsgaard

December 21, 2022   

The Turkey River's course has changed over the centuries.  Natural flooding can cause dramatic changes in a river's course and the Turkey is no different. I especially think of the river bottom across from the NHV Middle School between Clermont and Elgin.  Each year in my growing up years, that river bottom seemed to change with the river channel going back and forth across the bottom.  The area has stabilized over the last few years.

The depth of the Turkey has varied due to manmade structures, like dams, since the contact with whites.  There are a number of dams on this inland waterway.  Elkader, Iowa, has two dams--one that is "gated" so the pool can be drained above the dam, which is above the famous Stonearched Bridge, and the other a concrete dam below the business district.  Clermont, Iowa had a mill/hydroelectric dam in the downtown portion of the town west of the Hwy 18 bridge.  During the 1960's, the major portion of the dam failed leaving a broken fragment.  Finally, there is a water retention dam in downtown Wacoma, Iowa.  These structures were major water retention structures that remain, while any number of small mill dams have since been removed. 

 How did the indigenous people use the river?  Obviously, the people could follow the course of the river and its streams on foot or horseback.  What about the use of canoes and dugouts?  Along the Mississippi River and at the mouth of the Turkey River there were canoes of birch bark which had been made in Wisconsin or areas where birches grow. Were there log dugouts in the area of the Turkey? YES!  These crafts were made out of basswood or cottonwood logs that had been hollowed out by the use of stone axes, celts and fire!  The logs were shaped to make them more aerodynamic!  Recently, in Wisconsin, a pre-contact dugout was found in a lake.  It was dated as being 5000 years old.  Bill Quackenbush of the Ho-Chunk Nation is involved in making a dugout from a large cottonwood log, but he is using a CHAINSAW!!!

-Terry Landsgaard

December 14. 2022

The indigenous people of the Turkey River Valley were originally part of the “hunter-gatherer” tradition, but gradually changed to a somewhat agricultural society.  In 2014, a number of archaeologists, like Cindy Peterson, conducted a geophysical (non-invasive) investigation in an area near the Hewett-Olmsted Trading Post that was located west of Ft. Atkinson along the Turkey River.  In the river bottom below the trading post, was an area of raised beds, (sometimes called raised field, corn hills or corn mounds).  The “dig” was conducted in the late fall under an Igloo-shaped tent.  I visited the site daily to see the progress, even in a snow storm!  The beds had furrows between the mounds of earth.  This feature allowed for early planting, because the seedling plants would be raised above the “frost zone.”  Corn, beans and squash (the Three Sisters) were planted in these raised beds.  Caches of carbonized seeds were found, as well as Galena/lead ore, in a somewhat un-smelted form.

Likewise, a Ho-Chunk village was said to exist in the immediate vicinity, but its exact location was unknown at the time of the raised bed “dig.”

Another interesting area to explore are the mussel (clam) shell middens in the area of Massilon, a non-existent platted town in Auburn Township near the town of Douglas (Auburn).  The middens are along the Little Turkey River and can be seen in aerial photos. (I have always heard that mussels (clams) were the last thing the indigenous people would eat.)  Remember, that slams and oysters are related and filter feeders that ingest sand with their syphons in the feed process—Yuck!  On the Mississippi River, shell middens were covered with animal fat and set on fire to serve as night navigational aids for the indigenous people using the river at night.

Remember to ask before you explore.

-Terry Landsgaard

December 7, 2022

I went on a little trip from West Union to Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. The scenic way is always the best for me so, I went through St. Olaf and over Robert's Creek which empties into the Turkey River.  The valley through which Robert's Creek passes would have provided a secure wintering area. ( A study of the creeks that empty into the Turkey River would be an interesting project for the future.)  After having lunch in Prairie du Chien, I visited Effigy Mound National Monument, north of Marquette, Iowa, to see their selection of historical or archeological reading materials.  I had no more than opened the door of the visitor center, when the clerk pointed out new materials on the bookshelves.  The most interesting was: A Guide to Projectile Points of Iowa Part 2 by Joseph A. Tiffany, a plasticized "fold-up" for field work.  The guide shows a photo of the various projectile points, the archeological time frame of their making, the material from which they were made and the Iowa County where they were found. 

The following is a list of the names of the stone materials used by indigenous people of the Turkey River valley and the origin of the materials that were used:

     INDIANA HORNSTONE- Southern Indiana and Kentucky

     MAYNES CREEK CHERT- Central Iowa

     ACADIA RIDGE ORTHOQUARTZITE- north of La Crosse, Wisconsin

     BURLINGTON CHERT- southeastern Iowa and Illinois

     TONGUE RIVER SILICA- boundary between North and South Dakota

     WARSAW TUBULAR CHERT-Tennessee and Georgia

     SCOTCH GROVE CHERT-east central Iowa

     GALENA CHERT-where Iowa, Illinois and Wisconsin join

Why did I concentrate on these "point making materials''?  This geological information strongly points to trade between the peoples of the Turkey River and with peoples of other areas/regions or to tribal migrations.  The peoples of the Turkey River valley did not live in isolation.

-Terry Landsgaard

November 30, 2022

The size of the camps along the Turkey River varied from season to season.  Winter camps were small and located in areas that were sheltered and based around relationships.  Small domed wigwams that were constructed of a framework of saplings tied together at the top and covered with mats made of cattail leaves and bulrushes, formed a weather tight dwelling.  Cattail leaf mats covered the floor and a small cooking fire kept the wigwam warm.  Between the layers of mats covering the framework, dried grass was added to serve as insolation. 

During the winter, hunting, trapping and fishing through the ice occupied the men when weather permitted.  As spring arrived, it was time to tap Maples for syrup and sugar making. This was labor intensive work and required many individuals to collect and "boil down" the sap. In the precontact years, hollowed out basswood logs were used to hold the sap. Heated rocks provided the heat to evaporate the sap.  Later, kettles acquired from white traders, were used.  The last of the furs were gathered in April and the winter camps would be broken up. 

The various family groups would return to the larger riverside villages composed of oval or rectangular bark covered dwellings.  American Elms provided the sheets of bark for the dwelling because of its waterproof nature.  Underground food caches were opened for use.  Graves were visited and burials prepared for those that had died over the winter.  Gardens containing beans, squash and other favorite plants were planted.  Corn fields were planted near the village in June.  This agricultural work was done by women, while the men went on extended hunts for bison and other larger animals.  The meat from these hunts was dried for future use at home.  Naturally, fresh meat was eaten during the hunts. (Iowa did have bison, but not in great numbers as in more western areas.  I know of a farm near Hawkeye, Iowa, on a branch of the Volga River, that contained a "buffalo wallow.")

As the growing season came to a close, the large riverside villages broke up into smaller family groups that prepared the necessary provisions for their more isolated winter conditions.

Thus, ends another year of indigenous life.

-Terry Landsgaard 

November 23, 2022

Location, location, location was as strategic for the indigenous, as it is for modern groups.  If you think that a location would be a good place to live along the Turkey River, chances are that others before you thought the same thing.  These are the sorts of places that are good to investigate for previous habitation.

If you have an opportunity to travel in Northeastern Iowa along Highway 150 north of West Union, you will come to the town of Eldorado.  Pull into Goeken Park at the top of the hill south of the town and go to the overlook which will provide you a magnificent view of the Turkey River valley. as well as the confluence of the Turkey River with the Little Turkey River or Crane Creek.  The valley is rimmed with wooded hills that are part of the Niagara Escarpment and are known to harbor numerous burial mounds.  The valley floor around Eldorado has given up innumerable artifacts to farmers over the years. Native Americans have been known to actively summer in the area until the 1920s.

The ravines in the hillsides of the Turkey River valley provided wintering areas for the indigenous people.  South facing ravines and protected valleys provided wintering areas for smaller family groups after the larger summer villages broke up due to weather conditions.  If in your journeys along the Turkey you see a very inviting "retreat spot", it may be worth investigating.

 In the recent past, I was privileged to see a "sugar bush" along the Turkey River that was used by indigenous as well as settlers of the area.  When the mixture of cultures occurred, many times the participants were relatives!  It must be remembered that not all the indigenous were moved to reservations, some stayed and were absorbed into the pioneer culture.

You must remember to respect property rights. Ask permission before you enter any property, other than your own!!! 

-Terry Landsgaard 

November 16, 2022   

 With the foliage of plant life gone, the surface of the hillside along the Turkey River valley can be seen exposing the various features that make up the hill's structure.

Slabs of limestone, the primary sedimentary rock that makes up the understructure of the hills, are scattered on the surface.  Rock ledges and shelters give a layered feature.  Cave openings dot the surface in some areas, with a sinkhole not uncommon. Large standing rock faces are found near the mouth of the Turkey River on the Mississippi, like Paint Rock, north of Marquette, Iowa.

Rock shelters and caves were used, especially in the winter months, for habitation.  I have been in a number of caves and rock shelters in Wisconsin with a teacher education class through Effigy Mounds.  Petroglyphs and pictographs may be found in these kinds of rock features.  (It is essential that if these features are found in the Turkey River valley that they be protected and preserved from damage.)  The study of such features is important. I have seen the damage done to a petroglyph, in a Wisconsin cave, when an individual attempted to cut the glyph out of the cave wall with a concrete saw!!!

Rock faces often supplied chert nodules for tools as well as building materials.  In some cases, the limestone bore minerals like galena (lead ore) and sphalerite (zinc ore) that indigenous people mined for their own use or trade.

If you discover a rock feature that seems to be unique or has unique features like pictographs, petroglyphs or habitation signs, please contact the State Archeologists, conservation officer or member of the Tribes of the Turkey River.

-Terry Landsgaard 

November 9, 2022

The Fall must have been a very busy time for the peoples that called the Turkey River valley their home.  There were various nuts to gather for their winter supply—like Black Walnuts, Butternuts, Hickory nuts to two varieties:  Shagbark and Bitternut, Hazelnjuts, and the American Chestnut before the blight wiped them out.  Nuts were such an importanta food source that the indigenous people made “nut anvils” to hold the various nuts to they could be cracked. 

Acorns were also a major source of nut meal that supplemented the diet.  The ripe acorns of the Red and White Oak were gathered.  The acorns that ha fallen early were discarded, as well as those that were discolored or had weevil holes in them.  After the acorns had been allowed to dry, they were cracked and the kernel extracted.  These kernels were ground into a coarse meal that was boiled in water to remove the tannins from the acorn meal.  The water was changed several times to remove as much tannin as possible.  The meal was dried and stored for later use.

Another plant that the indigenous harvested for winter use were the tubers of the Jerusalem Artichoke, a member of the Composite family.  The tubers were dug up and cleaned for winter storage.  The tubers could be eaten raw or boiled like a potato.

All of the mentioned nuts and tubers are available for human consumption if you want to take the time to explore indigenous foods.

-Terry Landsgaard

November 2, 2022

The Fall must have been a very busy time for the peoples that called the Turkey River valley their home. There were various nuts to gather for their winter supply like Black Walnuts, Butternuts, Hickory nuts of two varieties: Shagbark and Bitternut, Hazelnuts and in the American Chestnut before the blight wiped them out.  Nuts were such an important food source that the indigenous people made "nut anvils" to hold the various nuts so they could be cracked. 

Acorns were also a major source of nut meal that supplemented the diet.  The ripe acorns of the Red and White Oak were gathered.  The acorns that had fallen early were discarded as well as those that were discolored or had weevil holes in them.  After the acorns had been allowed to dry, they were cracked and the kernel extracted.  These kernels were ground into a coarse meal that was boiled in water to remove the tannins from the acorn meal.  The water was changed several times to remove as much tannin as possible.  The meal was dried and stored for later use.

Another plant that the indigenous harvest for winter use, were the tubers of the Jerusalem Artichoke, a member of the Composite family.  The tubers were dug up and cleaned for winter storage.  These tubers could be eaten raw or boiled like a potato.

All of the above mentioned nuts and tubers are available for human consumption if you want to take the time and explore indigenous foods.

-Terry Landsgaard

October 19. 2022 

The Turkey River valley was, and is, a rich storehouse of food, shelter materials and tool making materials.  For generations the Souix from the north and the Sauk and Fox from the south fought over the region and its valuable resources.  It is also believed that tribes from Wisconsin entered the Turkey River valley in search of needed materials. 

This rich tribal blending provided varied artifacts and manmade landforms like effigy mounds. Because of this tribal interaction, which wasn't always favorable, the federal government stepped in to create the Neutral Line and later the Neutral Zone to separate conflicting tribes.  The Neutral Zone was filled with the Ho-Chunk that had been moved from Wisconsin by the government, to act as a "buffer filler."   This action stabilized the Turkey River valley region "for a time and a season."  In 1848, the Ho-Chunk were again moved by the government to Long Prairie, Minnesota. 

The Valley was without an indigenous population of note, but isolated individuals and families continued to live in the area to the present day.  Certain families of the area can trace their ancestry to the indigenous of the past.  I can remember when I was a young boy, that the Native Americans would camp in the area around Musser's Mill near Auburn (Douglas), Iowa, during the summer months. They would come to visit the graves of their departed family members in the hills and associate with their family members that still lived in the area. Family members that I grew up with mention the summer camping around Musser's Mill.  (I can still see in my "mind's eye" the teepees and other tents and their location in the campsite.)  Hopefully, this site will be preserved, and its accompanying burial groups. 

Eldorado had summer campers until the 1920s.  These camps were associated with the "High Banks" east of the town along the Turkey River..  This area has had human habitation for at least 8500 years.

-Terry Landsgaard

October 13, 2022   

 If you see something that appears odd, irregular, abnormal, not correct for the area, it probably is!  So, maybe it is time to mention this occurrence to someone that may be able to explain the object or occurrence. Members of the Tribes of the Turkey River Projects or the State Archeologist's Office may be a good starting point.  Because the area has been occupied for upward to 10,000 years many things are not products of nature but manmade.  Burial mounds, fire pits, rings of chert flakes and pottery sherds are found in various places.  Burial mounds may be conical, linear or animal shaped like effigy mounds.  These can be found in groupings on bluffs, hills and in other suitable areas.  If you find these kinds of structures, such areas should be reported to the State Archeologist's Office, a member of the Tribes of the Turkey River Project, or a conservation officer so their location can be recorded for posterity.  Many mounds have suffered due to agricultural practices as well as desecration by individuals looking for "grave goods." The story is told about a gentleman that spent his leisure time digging up mounds along the Turkey River.  One report credits him with violating at least twenty mounds.  The damage he incurred is irreparable and in today's world ILLEGAL! 

 One of the best sources for stories about the area around the Sub-Agency, north of St. Lucas, Iowa, on the Turkey River, was written by Vera Huber Schneburger.  She had a section on the Native Americans that continued to live in the area after the bulk of the Ho-Chunk tribe had been moved to Long Prairie, Minnesota.  John White Water Boy and his family, as well as Emma Big Bear and her husband William Henry Holt and their daughter Bertha Emiline, were mentioned as well as others.   Vera knew them all personally and was influential in the area, seeing she was a Huber.  The Huber family was and is very important to the Tribes of the Turkey River Project and the peoples we will be covering!

-Terry Landsgaard